The Use of GIS in the Spatial Analysis of an Archaeological Cave Site, 2002, Moyes, H.

Although archaeologists traditionally have viewed geographic information systems (GIS) as a tool for the investigation of large regions, its flexibility allows it to be used in non-traditional settings such as caves. Using the example of Actun Tunichil Muknal, a Terminal Classic Maya ceremonial cave in western Belize, this study demonstrates the utility of GIS as a tool for data display, visualization, exploration, and generation. Clustering of artifacts was accomplished by combining GIS technology with a K-means clustering analysis, and basic GIS functions were used to evaluate distances of artifact clusters to morphological features of the cave. Results of these analyses provided new insights into ancient Maya ritual cave use that would have been difficult to achieve by standard methods of map preparation and examination.

Faunal associates with karst landscapes: A preliminary assessment of bird observations in Belize, 2003, Day M.

Isotopic and geochemical evolution of ground and surface waters in a karst dominated geological setting: A case study from Belize, Central America, 2004, Marfia A. M. , Krishnamurthy R. V. , Atekwana E. A. , Panton W. F. ,

Analysis of stable isotopes and major ions in groundwater and surface waters in Belize, Central America was carried out to identify processes that may affect drinking water quality. Belize has a subtropical rainforest/savannah climate with a varied landscape composed predominantly of carbonate rocks and clastic sediments. Stable oxygen (delta(18)O) and hydrogen (deltaD) isotope ratios for surface and groundwater have a similar range and show high d-excess (10-40.8parts per thousand). The high d-excess in water samples suggest secondary continental vapor flux mixing with incoming vapor from the Caribbean Sea. Model calculations indicate that moisture derived from continental evaporation contributes 13% to overhead vapor load. In surface and groundwater, concentrations of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) ranged from 5.4 to 112.9 mg C/l and delta(13)C(DIC) ranged from -7.4 to -17.4parts per thousand. SO42, Ca2 and Mg2 in the water samples ranged from 2-163, 2-6593 and 2-90 mg/l, respectively. The DIC and delta(13)C(DIC) indicate both open and closed system carbonate evolution. Combined delta(13)C(DIC) and Ca2, Mg2 SO42- suggest additional groundwater evolution by gypsum dissolution and calcite precipitation. The high SO42- content of some water samples indicates regional geologic control on water quality. Similarity in the range of delta(18)O, deltaD and delta(13)C(DIC) for surface waters and groundwater used for drinking water supply is probably due to high hydraulic conductivities of the karstic aquifers. The results of this study indicate rapid recharge of groundwater aquifers, groundwater influence on surface water chemistry and the potential of surface water to impact groundwater quality and vise versa. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

Belize River Caves, 2004, Veni G.

Sensitive ecological areas and species inventory of Actun Chapat Cave, Vaca Plateau, Belize., 2005, Wynne J. J. , Pleytez W.

Cave ecosystems are considered one of the most poorly studied and fragile systems on Earth. Belize caves are no exception. This paper represents the first effort to synthesize information on both invertebrate and vertebrate observations from a Belize cave. Based on limited field research and a review of literature, we identified two ecologically sensitive areas, and developed a species inventory list containing 41 vertebrate and invertebrate morphospecies in Actun Chapat, Vaca Plateau, west-central Belize. Actun Chapat contains two ecologically sensitive areas: (1) a large multiple species bat roost, and (2) a subterranean pool containing troglobites and stygobites. The inventory list is a product of sporadic research conducted between 1973 and 2001. Ecological research in this cave system remains incomplete. An intensive systematic ecological survey of Actun Chapat with data collection over multiple seasons using a suite of survey techniques will provide a more complete inventory list. To minimize human disturbance to the ecologically sensitive areas, associated with ecotourism, we recommend limited to no access in the areas identified as “sensitive.”

Stalagmite stable isotope record of recent tropical cyclone events, 2007, Frappier Ab, Sahagian D, Carpenter Sj, Gonzalez La, Frappier Br,

We present a 23 yr stalagmite record (1977-2000) of oxygen isotope variation, associated with 11 tropical cyclones (TCs), from Actun Tunichil Muknal cave in central Belize. High-resolution microsampling yielded a record of monthly to weekly temporal resolution that contains abrupt decreases (negative excursions) in calcite {delta}18O values that correspond with recent TC rain events nearby. A logistic discriminant model reliably identified TC proxy signals using the measurable parameters {delta}18O and {delta}13C values, and single point changes in {delta}18O value. The logistic model correctly identified 80% of excursions as TC events and incorrectly classified only 1 of nearly 1200 nonstorm sampling points. In addition to enabling high-resolution TC frequency reconstruction, this geologic proxy also provides information about the intensity of individual TCs. A multiple regression predicted TC intensity (R2 = 0.465, p = 0.034) using sampling frequency and excursion amplitude. Consistent with previous low-resolution studies, we found that the decadal average {delta}18O value was lower during the 1990s when several TCs produced rainfall in the area, but higher during the 1980s when only one TC struck. Longer, accurately dated, high-resolution speleothem stable isotope records may be a useful new tool for paleotempestology, to clarify associations between highly variable TC activity and the dynamic range of Quaternary climate

Review: The Yucatan Peninsula karst aquifer, Mexico , 2011, Bauergottwein Peter, Gondwe Bibi R. N. , Charvet Guillaume, Marin Luis E. , Rebolledovieyra Mario, Meredizalonso Gonzalo

The Yucatan Peninsula karst aquifer is one of the most extensive and spectacular karst aquifer systems on the planet. This transboundary aquifer system extends over an area of approximately 165,000 km2 in Mexico, Guatemala and Belize. The Triassic to Holocene Yucatan limestone platform is located in the vicinity of the North American/Caribbean plate boundary and has been reshaped by a series of tectonic events over its long geologic history. At the end of the Cretaceous period, the Yucatan Peninsula was hit by a large asteroid, which formed the Chicxulub impact crater. The Yucatan Peninsula karst aquifer hosts large amounts of groundwater resources which maintain highly diverse groundwater-dependent ecosystems. Large parts of the aquifer are affected by seawater intrusion. Anthropogenic pollution of the aquifer has been increasing over the past few decades, owing to relentless economic development and population growth on the Peninsula. This review summarizes the state of knowledge on the Yucatan Peninsula karst aquifer and outlines the main challenges for hydrologic research and practical groundwater-resources management on the Peninsula.

Detection and morphologic analysis of potential below-canopy cave openings in the karst landscape around the Maya polity of Caracol using airborne LiDAR, 2011, Weishampel J. F. , Hightower J. N. , Chase A. F. , Chase D. Z. , Patrick R. A.

Locating caves can be difficult, as their entranceways are often obscured elow vegetation. Recently, active remote-sensing technologies, in particular laser-based sensor systems (LiDARs), have demonstrated the ability to penetrate dense forest canopies to reveal the underlying ground topography. An airborne LiDAR system was used to generate a 1 m resolution, bare-earth digital elevation model (DEM) from an archaeologically- and speleologically-rich area of western Belize near the ancient Maya site of Caracol. Using a simple index to detect elevation gradients in the DEM, we identified depressions with at least a 10 m change within a circular area of no more than 25 m radius. Across 200 km2 of the karst landscape, we located 61 depressions. Sixty of these had not been previously documented; the other was a cave opening known from a previous expedition. The morphologies of the depressions were characterized based on the LiDAR-derived DEM parameters, e.g., depth, opening area, and perimeter. We also investigated how the measurements change as a function of spatial resolution. Though there was a range of morphologies, most depressions were clustered around an average maximum depth of 21 m and average opening diameter of 15 m. Five depression sites in the general vicinity of the Caracol epicenter were visited; two of these were massive, with opening diameters of ,50 m, two could not be explored for lack of climbing gear, and one site was a cave opening into several chambers with speleothems and Maya artifacts. Though further investigation is warranted to determine the archaeological and geological significance of the remaining depressions, the general methodology represents an important advancement in cave detection.

Review: The Yucatán Peninsula karst aquifer, Mexico, 2011, Bauergottwein P. , Gondwe B. R. N. , Charvet G. , Marín L. E. , Rebolledovieyra M. , Meredizalonso G.

The Yucatán Peninsula karst aquifer is one of the most extensive and spectacular karst aquifer systems on the planet. This transboundary aquifer system extends over an area of approximately 165,000 km2 in México, Guatemala and Belize. The Triassic to Holocene Yucatán limestone platform is located in the vicinity of the North American/Caribbean plate boundary and has been reshaped by a series of tectonic events over its long geologic history. At the end of the Cretaceous period, the Yucatán Peninsula was hit by a large asteroid, which formed the Chicxulub impact crater. The Yucatán Peninsula karst aquifer hosts large amounts of groundwater resources which maintain highly diverse groundwater-dependent ecosystems. Large parts of the aquifer are affected by seawater intrusion. Anthropogenic pollution of the aquifer has been increasing over the past few decades, owing to relentless economic development and population growth on the Peninsula. This review summarizes the state of knowledge on the Yucatán Peninsula karst aquifer and outlines the main challenges for hydrologic research and practical groundwater-resources management on the Peninsula

Five Blues Lake National Park, Belize: a cautionary management tale, 2012, Day M. , Reynolds B. ,

Karst is inherently dynamic, and this may be manifest in unexpected ways, which may have major implications for management of protected areas, where changes may have major impacts on visitor numbers and revenue streams. In Five Blues Lake National Park, Belize, the principal visitor focus is Five Blues Lake itself. An anomalous feature with characteristics of a karst window or cenote but in the setting of a polje or ponor lake, Five Blues has both surface and underground drainage components. Establishment of the national park proceeded under the impression that the lake was a permanent feature, but over July 20 to 25, 2006, the lake drained rapidly underground. Without the lake, visitor numbers and park revenues declined, and the park was all but abandoned. The lake refilled in 2007, but visitor numbers continue to lag. Management and promotion of hydrologic features within protected areas needs to take such possibilities into account, emphasizing variability and change and avoiding a focus on conditions that may not prevail at any given time.

A new record of Nicoletia phytophila (Nicoletiidae: Zygentoma: Insecta) from a cave in Belize, 2013, Espinasa Luis, Taylor Steven J, Espinasa Monica

The view of Maya cave ritual from the Overlook Rockshelter, Caves Branch River Valley, Central Belize, 2013, Wrobel G. D. , Shelton R. , Morton S. , Lynch J. , Andres C.

Archaeological investigations of the Overlook Rockshelter in the Caves Branch River Valley of central Belize offer a unique view of ancient Maya cave ritual through the complete recovery and analysis of all artifacts within the site’s two small activity areas. In general, the assemblage contains many of the same types of objects documented from other nearby caves and rockshelters. However, the nearly 1700 ceramics sherds showed almost no refits, demonstrating that sherds were deposited at the site individually, rather than as complete vessels. The human bone assemblage represents three or four individuals, with the majority of the bones comprising a single individual, and all of these were deposited as incomplete secondary interments. Analogies for this depositional behavior based on archaeological and ethnographic studies suggest that this rockshelter may represent a waypoint within a ritual circuit composed of multiple locations over which fragments of complete items such as ceramic vessels and secondary burials were spread.  

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