Evaluating the effectiveness of a fixed wellhead delineation: Regional case study, 2006, Hodgson J. Y. S. , Stoll J. R. , Stoll R. C. ,

The 1996 Safe Drinking Water Act amendments mandated that every state must determine the hydrogeologic origin of each public drinking water system and assess the degree to which each system may be adversely affected by potential sources of contamination. Wisconsin delineated and assessed one specific class of systems, transient noncommunity drinking water wells, with the least stringent standards of all governed system types. This study evaluates the effectiveness of Wisconsin's arbitrarily fixed radius approach used in determining susceptibility to potential contamination from 1,872 transient noncommunity ground water wells. Nearly 28 percent of the wells with contaminated water did not have any recorded potential sources of contamination within the delineation radii. Additionally, regression models derived from potential contaminant inventories within the delineation radii could not accurately predict actual incidences of water contamination. Differences between observed and expected frequencies of contamination further suggest that some transient noncommunity systems should probably be delineated with larger and more sophisticated methods that would account for varying geology and contaminant susceptibility. The majority of contamination cases without recorded potential sources of contamination within the delineation radii were in a karst area. Subsequently, the arbitrarily fixed radius delineation method should not be used in areas with karst aquifers

Validation of vulnerability mapping methods by field investigations and numerical modelling, 2008, Neukum Christoph, Hotzl Heinz, Himmelsbach Thomas

Vulnerability maps illustrate the potential threat of contaminants to groundwater and can be considered as important tools for land-use planning and related legislation. For karst areas with characteristic preferential infiltration conditions, vulnerability maps are also excellent tools for source and resource protection. However, the resulting qualitative maps are often inconsistent and even contradictive and thus might lead to inconclusive vulnerability assessments. The results of a validation of vulnerability maps produced using four different methods, DRASTIC, GLA, PI and EPIK, are reported for a karst area in southwest Germany. By means of measured hydraulic and transport parameters of the geological sequence, numerical simulations were used based on a conceptual model for the area under study. The mean transit time through the unsaturated zone (resource protection) was used as the validation parameter. The study demonstrates that the highest level of accuracy is achieved with the GLA- and PI methods. Both DRASTIC and EPIK are not able to incorporate highly variable distributions and thickness of cover sediments and their protective properties in the respective mapping procedure. Thus, vulnerability maps produced with DRASTIC, EPIK, and related methods should be used with care when employed in vulnerability assessments for land use planning and related decision-making.
Les cartes de vulnerabilite illustrent la menace potentielle des contaminants envers les eaux souterraines, et peuvent etre considerees comme des outils importants en matiere d'amenagement foncier et de reglementation associee. Sur les domaines karstiques, caracterises par des conditions d'infiltration preferentielle, ces cartes sont egalement d'excellents outils de protection des sources et des ressources. Cependant, les cartes qualitatives resultantes sont generalement incoherentes voire contradictoires, et peuvent par la-meme mener a des evaluations de vulnerabilite peu concluantes. La presente etude expose les resultats de validation de cartes de vulnerabilite produites selon quatre methodes differentes (DRASTIC, GLA, PI et EPIK), dans le cas d'un domaine karstique du sud-est de l'Allemagne. Par le biais des parametres de transport et hydrauliques mesures sur la sequence geologique, des simulations numeriques basees sur un modele conceptuel du secteur d'etude ont ete utilisees. Les temps de transit moyens a travers la zone non saturee (protection de la ressource) ont ete utilises comme parametres de validation. L'etude demontre que le niveau maximum de precision est obtenu par les methodes GLA et PI. Dans la phase de cartographie, les methodes EPIK et DRASTIC sont incapables d'integrer une forte variabilite dans les distributions et les epaisseurs de sediments de couverture, ainsi que dans leurs potentiels de protection. Aussi, les cartes de vulnerabilite produites par les methodes DRASTIC et EPIK doivent etre utilisees avec precaution dans le cadre des evaluations de vulnerabilite a but decisionnaire pour les amenagements fonciers.
Los mapas de vulnerabilidad ilustran la amenaza potencial de contaminantes para el agua subterranea y pueden ser considerados herramientas importantes para planeamiento del uso de la tierra y legislacion relacionada. Para areas carsticas con sus caracteristicas condiciones de infiltracion preferencial, los mapas de vulnerabilidad son tambien excelentes herramientas para proteccion de fuentes y recursos. Sin embargo, los mapas cualitativos resultantes son frecuentemente inconsistentes y hasta contradictorios y por lo tanto podrian conducir a evaluaciones de vulnerabilidad no concluyentes. Los resultados de una validacion de mapas de vulnerabilidad producidos usando cuatro metodos diferentes, DRASTIC, GLA, PI y EPIK, son presentados aqui para un area carstica en Alemania suroccidental. Se usaron simulaciones numericas usando parametros hidraulicos y de transporte medidos de la secuencia geologica y basandose en un modelo conceptual del area en estudio. El tiempo promedio de transito a traves de la zona no saturada (proteccion del recurso) fue utilizado como el parametro de validacion. El estudio demuestra que el maximo nivel de precision es alcanzado con los metodos GLA y PI. DRASTIC y EPIK no fueron capaces de incorporar distribuciones altamente variables ni espesor de sedimentos de cubierta y sus propiedades protectivas en el respectivo procedimiento de elaboracion de mapas. Por lo tanto los mapas de vulnerabilidad producidos con DRASTIC, EPIK y metodos relacionados deberian ser usados con cuidado cuando se usen en evaluaciones de vulnerabilidad para planeamiento del uso de tierra

Phreatic drainage conduits within quartz sandstone: Evidence from the Jurassic Precipice Sandstone, Carnarvon Range, Queensland, Australia, 2009, Wray R.

Discrete underground drainage conduits in quartz sandstones are far less common than in limestones. This paper provides field evidence from the quartzose Precipice Sandstone in the Carnarvon Range of south-central Queensland, Australia, for tubular underground drainage networks similar in many ways to limestone conduits. Diameters range from less than 1 or 2 cm to over 1.5 m, most display a near-circular to oval cross-section that seems to suggest phreatic or epiphreatic development, and the internal surfaces of many are case-hardened by secondary silica deposits. A number of the region's perennial springs appear to be fed by such tubes. The dominant vertical jointing of the quartz sandstone and relatively high permeability of the sandstone are important controls on tube formation. Solutional weathering of the sandstone is widespread, and is followed by the removal of loosened sand grains by flowing underground water, the process of ‘arenisation’. Tube development would appear to have been happening for a very long time, and may still be occurring. A model for tube network formation is proposed. These findings highlight our potentially poor understanding of groundwater flow within some quartz sandstones, and may have important groundwater management implications.

TIME SERIES ANALYSIS, MODELLING AND ASSESSMENT OF OPTIMAL EXPLOITATION OF THE NEMANJA KARST SPRINGS, SERBIA, 2010, Jemcov I. , Petri? M.

The time series analysis was applied in the case-study of a karst aquifer in Serbia in order to study its functioning, hydrodynamic behavior and hydraulic properties. Focusing on the definition of groundwater budget, due to very complex functioning of karst systems the correlation and spectral analyses were used to emphasize the importance of transforming the input data � precipitation to effective infiltration. Thee characterization of karst aquifer was further improved by separating the output component � discharge to base flow and flatfoot components. Additionally, the importance of these transformations was proved in application of the regression model for the simulation of discharges based on the effective infiltration functions. A recharge-discharge model was applied in accordance with the active groundwater management, defining optimal �exploitable� regimes, which included the analyses of storage changes in karst water reservoirs under natural conditions, and calculation of the potential exploitation conditions.

Relative importance of the saturated and the unsaturated zones in the hydrogeological functioning of karst aquifers: The case of Alta Cadena (Southern Spain), 2011, Mudarra M. , Andreo B.

From analysis of the hydrodynamic and hydrochemical responses of karst springs, it is possible to know the behaviour of the aquifers they drain. This manuscript aims to contribute to the characterization of infiltration process, and to determine the relative importance of the saturated zone and of the unsaturated zone in the hydrogeological functioning of carbonate aquifers, using natural hydrochemical tracers. Thus, chemical components together with temperature and electrical conductivity (both punctual and continuous records) have been monitored in three springs which drain Alta Cadena carbonate aquifer, Southern Spain. An evaluation of the percentage of the electrical conductivity frequency peaks determined for each of the three springs is linked to the chemical parameters that comprise the conductivity signal. One of these springs responds rapidly to precipitation (conduit flow system), due to the existence of a high degree of karstification in the unsaturated zone and in the saturated zone, both of which play a similar role in the functioning of the spring. Another spring responds to precipitation with small increases in water flow, somewhat lagged, because the aquifer has a low degree of karstification, even in the unsaturated zone, which seems to influence its functioning more strongly than does the saturated zone. The third spring drains a sector of the aquifer with a moderately developed degree of karstification, one that is intermediate between the other two, in which both the unsaturated zone and the saturated zone participate in the functioning of the spring, but with the latter zone having a stronger influence. These three springs show different hydrogeological functioning although they are in similar geological and climatic contexts, which show the heterogeneity of karst media and the importance of an adequate investigation for groundwater management and protection in karst areas.

Research highlights
- From analysis of the hydrodynamic and hydrochemical responses of karst springs. - Characterization of the relative importance of the saturated (SZ) and unsaturated (NSZ) zones - Villanueva del Rosario: NSZ and SZ play similar roles in the functioning of the system. ► Pita: NSZ seems to affect its functioning more than SZ. - Parroso: NSZ and SZ participate in the functioning of the system, but SZ is more active.

Karst Groundwater Management through Science and Education, 2011, Guo Fang, Jiang Guanghui

In Southwestern China, karst covers an area of 540,000 km2, and supports a population of approximately 100 million people. This groundwater can easily become highly polluted without effective management. Sound management of karst areas requires the conscientious participation of citizens including homeowners, planners, government officials, farmers and other land-use decision makers. Lingshui Spring was a good example. A series of educational materials were developed and delivered to the local government, residents, and students. A groundwater polluted accident was tracked as a natural tracer test in a spring to increase understanding of the vulnerability of the area’s karst aquifer. More than 200 people attended the communication and training course on groundwater protection and environmental justice law. Several efforts have appeared as a result, such as a proposal for Lingshui water resources protection that was put forward for the first time by Wuming county political consultative conference

Review: The Yucatan Peninsula karst aquifer, Mexico , 2011, Bauergottwein Peter, Gondwe Bibi R. N. , Charvet Guillaume, Marin Luis E. , Rebolledovieyra Mario, Meredizalonso Gonzalo

The Yucatan Peninsula karst aquifer is one of the most extensive and spectacular karst aquifer systems on the planet. This transboundary aquifer system extends over an area of approximately 165,000 km2 in Mexico, Guatemala and Belize. The Triassic to Holocene Yucatan limestone platform is located in the vicinity of the North American/Caribbean plate boundary and has been reshaped by a series of tectonic events over its long geologic history. At the end of the Cretaceous period, the Yucatan Peninsula was hit by a large asteroid, which formed the Chicxulub impact crater. The Yucatan Peninsula karst aquifer hosts large amounts of groundwater resources which maintain highly diverse groundwater-dependent ecosystems. Large parts of the aquifer are affected by seawater intrusion. Anthropogenic pollution of the aquifer has been increasing over the past few decades, owing to relentless economic development and population growth on the Peninsula. This review summarizes the state of knowledge on the Yucatan Peninsula karst aquifer and outlines the main challenges for hydrologic research and practical groundwater-resources management on the Peninsula.

Modified DRASTIC assessment for intrinsic vulnerability mapping of karst aquifers: a case study , 2011, Mimi Ziad A. , Mahmoud Nidal, Abu Madi Maher

Groundwater in karstic aquifers can be dangerously sensitive to contamination. In this paper, DRASTIC assessment was modified and applied, for the first time, to address the intrinsic vulnerability for karst aquifers. The theoretical weights of two of DRASTIC’s parameters (aquifer media and hydraulic conductivity) were modified through sensitivity analysis. Two tests of sensitivity analyses were carried out: the map removal and the single parameter sensitivity analyses. The modified assessment was applied for the karst aquifers underlying Ramallah District (Palestine) as a case study. The aquifer vulnerability map indicated that the case study area is under low, moderate and high vulnerability of groundwater to contamination. The vulnerability index can assist in the implementation of groundwater management strategies to prevent degradation of groundwater quality. The modified DRASTIC assessment has proven to be effective because it is relatively straightforward, use data that are commonly available or estimated and produces an end product that is easily interpreted.

Review: The Yucat�n Peninsula karst aquifer, Mexico, 2011, Bauergottwein P. , Gondwe B. R. N. , Charvet G. , Mar�n L. E. , Rebolledovieyra M. , Meredizalonso G.

The Yucatán Peninsula karst aquifer is one of the most extensive and spectacular karst aquifer systems on the planet. This transboundary aquifer system extends over an area of approximately 165,000 km2 in México, Guatemala and Belize. The Triassic to Holocene Yucatán limestone platform is located in the vicinity of the North American/Caribbean plate boundary and has been reshaped by a series of tectonic events over its long geologic history. At the end of the Cretaceous period, the Yucatán Peninsula was hit by a large asteroid, which formed the Chicxulub impact crater. The Yucatán Peninsula karst aquifer hosts large amounts of groundwater resources which maintain highly diverse groundwater-dependent ecosystems. Large parts of the aquifer are affected by seawater intrusion. Anthropogenic pollution of the aquifer has been increasing over the past few decades, owing to relentless economic development and population growth on the Peninsula. This review summarizes the state of knowledge on the Yucatán Peninsula karst aquifer and outlines the main challenges for hydrologic research and practical groundwater-resources management on the Peninsula

Speleogenesis, Hypogenic, 2012, Klimchouk, Alexander

Recognition of the cave development at depths below the near-surface environment, largely during mesogenesis by processes not directly related to the surface, signifies a major paradigm shift in karst science, previously overwhelmingly dominated by the epigene concepts and models. Such caves form by upwelling waters of meteoric and deeper origins driven by hydrostatic pressure and other sources of energy. They occur widely through the upper part of the Earth’s crust, although become available for direct study only when shifted to the shallow subsurface during uplift and erosion, or through mines or boreholes. Hypogenic caves form in different rocks in a wide range of geological and tectonic settings and include some of the largest known caves in the world. Hypogene karst is one of the fundamental categories of karst, at least of equal importance with more familiar epigenic karst. The more comprehensive approach to karst that emerges implies that speleogenesis should be viewed in time scales of the host rock life, in the context of its diagenetic evolution and the evolution of basin-scale groundwater circulation regimes and systems in response to tectonic processes and geomorphic development. The rapidly evolving deeper understanding of hypogene speleogenesis has broad implications for many applied fields such as prospecting and characterization of hydrocarbon reservoirs and mineral resources, groundwater management, geological engineering, and related activities.

Quantifying Concentrated and Diffuse Recharge in Two Marble Karst Aquifers: Big Spring and Tufa Spring, Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks, California, USA, 2012, Tobin B. , Schwartz B. ,

To improve water management in mountain systems, it is essential that we understand how water moves through them. Researchers have documented the importance of porous-media aquifers in mountain river systems, but no previous research has explicitly included mountain karst as part of conceptual models. To do so, we used discharge and geochemical parameters measured along upstreamto- downstream transects under high- and low-flow conditions in 2010 to assess storage characteristics and geochemical properties of two mountain marble-karst systems, the Big Spring and Tufa Spring systems in Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks, California. During both high- and low-flow conditions, we quantified the relative contributions of concentrated and diffuse recharge in both karst systems, and we used a simple linear mixing model to calculate specific conductance in unsampled diffuse sources that ranged from 34 mS cm21 to 257 mS cm21. Data show that the Big Spring system has a much higher seasonal storage capacity than the Tufa Spring system, and that diffuse sources dominate discharge and geochemistry under baseflow conditions in both aquifer systems. Baseflow in Big Spring was 0.114 m3 s21 and in Tufa Spring it was 0.022 m3 s21. Snowmelt-derived allogenic recharge dominates both systems during high discharge periods, measured at Big Spring as 0.182 m3 s21 and Tufa Spring as 0.220 m3 s21. A conceptual model is proposed that explicitly includes the effects of karst aquifers on mountain hydrology when karst is present in the basin.

Hypogene Speleogenesis, 2013, Klimchouk, A. B.

Recognition of the wide occurrence, significance, and specific characteristics of hypogene speleogenesis during last twodecades signifies a major paradigm shift in karst science, previously overwhelmingly dominated by epigene concepts and models. Hypogene karst is one of the fundamental categories of karst, at least of equal importance with more familiar epigenic karst. Hypogene and epigenic karst systems are regularly associated with different types, patterns, and segments off low systems, which are characterized by distinct hydrokinetic, chemical, and thermal conditions. Hypogene speleogenesis is the formation of solution-enlarged permeability structures by water that recharges thecavernous zone from below, independent of recharge from the overlying or immediately adjacent surface. It develops mainly in leaky confined conditions, although it may continue through unconfined ones. Hydraulic communication along cross-formational flow paths, across lithological boundaries, different porosity systems, and flow regimes allows deeper ground waters in regional or intermediate flow systems to interact with shallower and more local systems, permittinga variety of dissolution mechanisms to operate. A specific hydrogeologic mechanism acting in hypogenic transverse speleogenesis (restricted input/output) suppresses the positive flow-dissolution feedback and speleogenetic competition seen in the epigenic development. Hypogenic caves occur in different soluble rocks in a wide range of geological and tectonic settings, basinal throughorogenic. Overall patterns of cave systems are strongly guided by the spatial distribution of the initial (prespeleogenetic) permeability features and hydrostratigraphic barriers and interfaces within the soluble and adjacent units, by the mode of water input to, and output from, cave-forming zones and by the overall recharge–discharge configuration in the multiple aquifer system. Because of their transverse nature, hypogene caves have a clustered distribution in plan view, althoughinitial clusters may merge laterally across considerable areas. Hypogene caves display remarkable similarity in their pattern sand mesomorphology, strongly suggesting that the type of flow system is the primary control. The rapidly evolving understanding of hypogene speleogenesis has broad implications for many applied fields such asprospecting and characterization of hydrocarbon reservoirs, groundwater management, geological engineering, and mineral resources industries

KARSYS: a pragmatic approach to karst hydrogeological system conceptualisation. Assessment of groundwater reserves and resources in Switzerland, 2013, Jeannin P. Y. , Eichenberger U. , Sinreich M. , Vouillamoz J. , Malard A. , Weber E.

An approach is presented for the hydrogeological conceptualisation of karst systems. The KARSYS approach helps hydrogeologists working in karst regions to address in a pragmatic and efficient way the three following questions. (1) Where does the water of a karst spring come from? (2) Through which underground routes does it flow? (3) What are the groundwater reserves and where are they? It is based on a three dimensional model of the carbonate aquifer geometry (3D geological model) coupled to a series of simple fundamental principles of karst hydraulics. This provides, within a limited effort, a consistent hydrogeological conceptual model of karst flow systems within any investigation area. The level of detail can be adjusted according to the targeted degree of confidence. Two examples of its application are presented; the approach was first applied with a low level of detail on a national scale in order to assess the groundwater reserves in karst aquifers in Switzerland, suggesting a groundwater volume of 120 km3. On a regional scale, it was applied with a higher level of detail to some selected karst systems in order to assess their hydropower potential. The KARSYS approach may provide very useful information for water management improvement in karst regions (vulnerability assessment, impact assessment, water supply, flood hazards, landslides, etc.). It leads, in a very cost-effective manner, to a new and highly didactic representation of karst systems as well as to new concepts concerning the delineation of catchment areas in karst regions.

Interpretation of hydrogeological functioning of a high karst plateau using the KARSYS approach: the case of Trnovsko-Banjška planota (Slovenia), 2013, Turk Janez, Malard Arnauld, Jeannin Pierreyves, Vouillamoz Jonathan, Masini Jean, Petrič Metka, Gabrovšek Franci, Ravbar Nataša, Slabe Tadej

The high karst plateau of Trnovsko­Banjška planota is one of the most important reservoirs of karst water in Slovenia. Almost all important karst springs in this area are captured for water supply. A sustainable management of this source of groundwater is of strategic importance, not only as drinking water supply but also for the economy. For these reasons, many hydrogeological monitoring studies have been carried out over the last decades. However, no consistent regional overview of the hydrogeological functioning of Trnovsko­Banjška planota was available and we decided to study this area with more direct approach based on 3D geological and hydrogeological models. The so called KARSyS approach was developed in Switzerland and applied primarily to characterize groundwater reserves within a karst massif, and to sketch the main flow­paths carrying groundwater from recharge areas to the respective springs. The delineation of spring catchment areas in karst regions was better defined and interactions between catchments were interpreted. These results can be used to improve the management of karst waters in the studied area.