A comparative integrated geophysical study of Horseshoe Chimney Cave, Colorado Bend State Park, Texas, , Brown Wesley A. , Stafford Kevin W. , Shawfaulkner Mindy , Grubbs Andy

An integrated geophysical study was performed over a known cave in Colorado Bend State Park (CBSP), Texas, where shallow karst features are common within the Ellenberger Limestone. Geophysical survey such as microgravity, ground penetrating radar (GPR), direct current (DC) resistivity, capacitively coupled (CC) resistivity, induced polarization (IP) and ground conductivity (GC) measurements were performed in an effort to distinguish which geophysical method worked most effectively and efficiently in detecting the presence of subsurface voids, caves and collapsed features. Horseshoe Chimney Cave (HCC), which is part of a larger network of cave systems, provides a good control environment for this research. A 50 x 50 meter grid, with 5 m spaced traverses was positioned around the entrance to HCC. Geophysical techniques listed above were used to collect geophysical data which were processed with the aid of commercial software packages. A traditional cave survey was conducted after geophysical data collection, to avoid any bias in initial data collection. The survey of the cave also provided ground truthing. Results indicate the microgravity followed by CC resistivity techniques worked most efficiently and were most cost effective, while the other methods showed varying levels of effectiveness.

Some Preliminary observations relating to the use of Earth-resistivity measurements to Cave Detection, 1974, Creedy D. P. , Freeman J.

Cave Location by Electrical Resistivity measurements: some misconceptions and the practical limits of detection, 1975, Myers J. O.

A Resistivity Survey over Stoke Lane Slocker [Somerset], 1976, Hiscock Peter

A study of fresh water lens configuration in the Cayman Islands using resistivity methods, 1976, Bugg Sf, Lloyd Jw,

The problems of identifying the base of fresh water lenses in oceanic islands are discussed. A study carried out in the Cayman Islands is described in which the lens base is defined in relation to potable water standards and mapped using surface resistivity measurements with salinity profile controls in boreholes. Using depth-salinity ratios the piezometric surface is then determined. The technique is considered to provide a reliable cheap and rapid method of obtaining lens geometry in oceanic islands particularly where fairly homogeneous lithologies are present

Techniques géophysiques de type électromagnétiques appliquées à l'étude du karst nivernais, 1985, Couturaud A. , Benderitter Y.

STUDY OF KARSTIC DRAINS ENVIRONMENT BY GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES (ELECTRIC AND ELECTROMAGNETIC) - Geophysical techniques (electric and electromagnetic) are tested on two underground rivers of the Nivernais karst (Bourgogne, France). The first site is an important dry valley and the second locates at the border of a plateau. No sharp image of the known galleries were obtained on both sites, but the first one shows a higher density of anomalies corresponding to the cave. In the axis of the valley is a weak resistivity anomaly, without any relation with the karstic drainage and which has not superficial origin. This anomaly would be the consequence of a fracturing of bottom valley. Others zones of fractures are evidenced, cross-cutting the conduits. The second one has also weak resistivity zones, independent of the cave, which are interpreted as annex system (hydrological sense). Some reflections on theoretical and methodological aspect of this type of research are proposed.

FORMATION OF REGOLITH-COLLAPSE SINKHOLES IN SOUTHERN ILLINOIS - INTERPRETATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF ASSOCIATED BURIED CAVITIES, 1994, Panno S. V. , Wiebel C. P. , Heigold P. C. , Reed P. C. ,

Three regolith-collapse sinkholes formed near the Dongola Unit School and the Pentecostal Church in the southern Illinois village of Dongola (Union County) during the spring of 1993. The sinkholes appeared over a three-month period that coincided with development of a new municipal well. The new well was drilled through clay-rich, valley-fill sediment into karstified limestone bedrock. The piezometric surface of the limestone aquifer is above land surface, indicating the presence of an upward hydraulic gradient in the valley and that the valley fill is acting as a confining unit. Pumping during development of the well lowered the piezometric surface of the limestone aquifer to an elevation below the base of the valley fill. It is hypothesized that drainage of water from the sediments, the resulting loss of hydrostatic pressure and buoyant force in overlying sediments, increased intergranular pressure, and the initiation of groundwater flow toward the well resulted in rapid sediment transport, subsurface erosion, and collapse of the valley-fill sediment. The sinkholes follow an approximately east west alignment, which is consistent with one of the two dominant alignments of passages of nearby joint-controlled caves. A constant electrode-separation resistivity survey of the school playground was conducted to locate areas that might contain incipient sinkholes. The survey revealed a positive resistivity anomaly trending N75E in the southern part of the study area. The anomaly is linear, between 5 and 10 m wide. and its trend either intersects or is immediately adjacent to the three sinkholes. The anomaly is interpreted to be a series of pumping-induced cavities in the valley-fill sediments that formed over a preexisting crevice in the karstified bedrock limestone

SHALLOW KARST EXPLORATION USING MT-VLF AND DC RESISTIVITY METHODS, 1995, Guerin R. , Benderitter Y. ,

A geophysical test was carried out over a well-located and fairly embedded karstic conduit. The MT-VLF method was selected because of its high resolution and its ability to provide a resistivity parameter sensitive to water and clay. This method was used together with DC resistivity methods which allow vertical adjustment of the VLF data and show consistency between the investigation and target depths. After correcting the deformations due to the polarization of the primary field, the MT-VLF data show clearly, in the central part of the site, that the conduit does not coincide with an anomaly axis but coincides with the boundary between a conductive area and a resistive area. 2D modelling confirms that direct detection of the conduit is not feasible and that the conduit is located close to a conductive zone corresponding to a completely clay-filled fractured zone. This situation was observed on the whole site and the conduit seemed systematically to thread its way between the conductive zones to join the outlet. The distribution of the conductive fractured zones and the direction of the hydraulic gradient were two important elements in predicting the location of the conduits. A 3D approach would increase the probability of finding the conduits in such a case

Hydrogeological investigations in northwestern Yucatan, Mexico, using resistivity surveys, 1996, Steinich B. , Marin L. E. ,

Eight Schlumberger soundings and four Wenner anisotropy measurements were conducted in the northwestern section of the Yucatan Peninsula for hydrogeological investigations of a karst aquifer. This system is influenced by a circular high permeability zone (Ring of Cenotes) probably related to the Chicxulub Impact Crater. Schlumberger soundings and Wenner anisotropy measurements show that the karst aquifer can be modeled as an electrically anisotropic medium. Anisotropy is related to preferential permeability directions channeling ground-water flow within the aquifer. Directions of maximum permeability were determined using Wenner anisotropy measurements. Electrical soundings were conducted at different sites near the Ring of Cenotes. Resistivity values decrease toward the Ring of Cenotes supporting the hypothesis that selected segments of the Ring have high permeability. Several soundings were conducted in order to study lateral permeability variations along the Ring. A high permeability section can be identified by low resistivity models and is related to a zone of high cenote density. A low permeability section of the Ring was found showing high resistivity models. This zone overlaps with an area of low cenote density. Electrical soundings were used to determine the depth of the fresh-water lens; the interface was detected along two profiles perpendicular and parallel to the Ring of Cenotes resulting in a depth that ranged from 18 m near the coast up to 110 m in the southeastern part of the study area. The predicted depths of the interface using electrical methods showed a good correlation with Ghyben-Herzberg and measured interface depths at some sites. Discrepancies between calculated and interpreted interface depths at two sites may be explained by horizontal-to-vertical permeability anisotropy

Least-squares fit of an ellipse to anisotropic polar data: Application to azimuthal resistivity surveys in karst regions, 1997, Hart D. , Rudman A. J. ,

Polar plots of various types of anisotropic data are often approximated by ellipses and used by earth scientists as part of the interpretation process. FITELLIPSE, a code to calculate the orientation and values of the major and minor axes of a best-fit ellipse to anisotropic data, is written using Maple, a standard commercial software. A nonlinear statistical parameter is calculated to evaluate the goodness-of-fit. Application to azimuthal resistivity in karst of Indiana demonstrates the direction and degree of the anisotropy. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

The use of geophysical techniques in the detection of shallow cavities in limestone, MSc thesis, 1997, Walker, D. C.

Electromagnetic, resistivity and microgravity techniques were compared for their ability to delineate and resolve shallow natural cavity systems in limestone. Geophysical work was carried out at two field sites. Electromagnetic and resistivity constant-depth profiling surveys were carried out at Kitley Caves in Yealmpton, South Devon, with the purpose of determining the lateral extent of the already partially mapped system. Lower Long Chum Cave in Ribblesdale, North Yorkshire, was used as a control site for the testing of resistivity tomography and microgravity techniques. Several cavities had already been mapped at this site, and were known to be approximately cylindrical passages, with radii of 2-4m within a depth range of 5-20m, in the area to be surveyed.
At Kitley Caves, both the EM31 and resistivity surveys were carried out over a 20x30m grid, approximately 50m west of Western Ton's Quarry. The station interval for the EM31 survey was 2.5m, whereas resistivity readings were taken at 1m intervals. Both techniques identified a linear, low resistivity, anomaly orientated close to the primary joint direction. This feature is interpreted as a sediment-filled fissure, but excavation of the site would be required for verification.
The main Lower Long Chum Cave passage was also identified using EM mapping at 2.5m intervals. Four 155m lines were surveyed using resistivity tomography technique, with 32 electrodes at 5m spacing selected in a Wenner configuration. This survey successfully delineated Diccan Pot and Lower Long Churn caves in the locations and depth ranges expected, and also identified a previously unmapped feature that was interpreted as an air-filled cave or fissure 40m to the south of the main passage. The inversion process caused the features to be horizontally smeared to approximately twice their true dimensions, and in some cases anomalies from separate features were combined.
Lower Long Churn Cave was also successfully delineated using microgravity. Analysis of the residual Bouguer anomaly, combined with two dimensional forward modelling, implied a density contrast of 2.0g/cc, a radius of 2.1m and a depth of 5m. This agreed to within 2.5m with the depth given by resistivity. The position of the tunnel axis found using the two techniques differed by a maximum of 4m.
Resistivity tomography and microgravity were thus concluded to be techniques accurate in the delineation of shallow subsurface cavities. Future improvements in the latter method depend on the development of instruments that are sensitive enough to detect small changes in gravitational acceleration, whilst remaining relatively insensitive to background noise. Resistivity tomography is becoming an increasingly more valuable technique as refinements in the inversion process reduce smearing of anomalous features and improve the accuracy of the subsurface images produced.

Subsidence hazards caused by the dissolution of Permian gypsum in England: geology, investigation and remediation, 1998, Cooper Ah,

About every three years natural catastrophic subsidence, caused by gypsum dissolution, occurs in the vicinity of Ripon, North Yorkshire, England. Holes up to 35 m across and 20 m deep have appeared without warning. In the past 150 years, 30 major collapses have occurred, and in the last ten years the resulting damage to property is estimated at about {pound}1000000. Subsidence, associated with the collapse of caves resulting from gypsum dissolution in the Permian rocks of eastern England, occurs in a belt about 3 km wide and over 100 km long. Gypsum (CaS04.2H20) dissolves rapidly in flowing water and the cave systems responsible for the subsidence are constantly enlarging, causing a continuing subsidence problem. Difficult ground conditions are associated with caves, subsidence breccia pipes (collapsed areas of brecciated and foundered material), crown holes and post-subsidence fill deposits. Site investigation methods that have been used to define and examine the subsidence features include microgravity and resistivity geophysical techniques, plus more conventional investigation by drilling and probing. Remedial measures are difficult, and both grouting and deep piling are not generally practical. In more recent times careful attention has been paid to the location for development and the construction of low-weight structures with spread foundations designed to span any subsidence features that may potentially develop

Non-invasive investigation of polygonal karst features: Yorkshire Dales National Park. MSc thesis (Exploration Geophysics), 1999, Gullen T.

Resistivity, refraction and resistivity tomography methods were used to ascertain the dimensions of any sediment body present within solution dolines. Fieldwork was undertaken at two sites within the Yorkshire Dales National Park: High Mark [SD920 679] northeast of Malham Tarn, and on Ingleborough, northeast of Clapham Bottoms [SD765 722].
Results of previous studies of doline fill have been inconclusive. It has been hypothesised (Howard, unpublished) that if dolines do contain significant amounts of sediment, the fill could provide a complete palaeoenvironmental record of the Quaternary.
Resistivity studies undertaken at High Mark used an Offset Wenner array, and field data were inverted to produce a 1-D image of the subsurface. The profiles were located at the base of the doline, in the area believed to contain the greatest sediment thickness. Results suggest that the fill comprises two layers. An upper layer approximately 1 m thick is composed of poorly consolidated clayey sand with an apparent resistivity of 166m. The second layer reaches a depth of 5.6m and is more clay-rich, with an apparent resistivity of 60m. These interpretations are supported by evidence from augering. The upper 10m of limestone below the sediment has been altered during doline formation, weathering and fracturing, and has a resistivity of 220m compared to 440m for the unaltered bedrock.
Refraction profiles were undertaken at High Mark, using the hammer and plate method with a 2m geophone spacing. Profiles were located on the base, flanks and interfluves of the doline. Ground conditions prevented the acquisition of very long offset shots (>10m), and lack of these data hindered interpretation. Profiles undertaken at Ingleborough used an explosive shot placed in a 45cm-deep hole, and a 5m geophone spacing was used. Profiles were located at the base of the dolines.
Results at High Mark suggest that the limestone is overlain by 4m of sediment. The upper layer has a velocity of approximately 0.50m/ms, whereas that of the second layer is 1.19m/ms. Alteration of the upper 6m of the bedrock is indicated by a velocity of 2.00m/ms, compared to 2.99m/ms for the unaltered limestone. The bedrock surface is undulatory, possibly indicating the effects of preferential dissolution or glacial activity.
Results of the refraction surveys at Ingleborough indicate that the limestone is overlain by a single 4m-thick layer of sediment with a velocity of 0.52m/ms. Beneath this, the upper 13m of limestone is altered, with a velocity of 2.45m/ms, which increases to 3.75m/ms in the unaltered limestone below. Velocities obtained are lower than expected, but reliable imaging of the limestone was ensured by siting the profiles close to observed rock exposures. Refraction interpretations indicate that the centre of the doline is not coincident with the position predicted from observation of the surface morphology.
Resistivity tomography profiles were undertaken at the base of the dolines at both sites. A fully automated system employing a Wenner array with 25 electrodes at 5m spacings was used, and six levels were recorded. The field data were inverted and the results suggest that there are about 12.5m of sediment in the High Mark doline. The sediment is underlain by 2m of altered limestone and the bedrock base of the doline is relatively smooth.
In contrast, the thickness of sediment fill in the Ingleborough dolines is 7.5m, but the depressions are bounded by a greater thickness of altered limestone (10m). In places the limestone imaged appears to reach the surface, but is not observed in the field, indicating that minimal sediment cover is not imaged. The surface of the limestone is pitted by smaller sediment-filled depressions, possibly a feature of glacial scour.
Two profiles were forward modelled to test the reliability of the inversion model. The models were similar, but features were displaced to the right of the true section. Synthetic models were constructed to test geological hypotheses concerning the composition of the dolines. The models suggested that the dolines are relatively shallow (<12m) and are underlain by significant thicknesses of altered limestone (~10m).
The combination of results obtained suggests that dolines are not filled by significant quantities of sediment and, consequently, they cannot be used as palaeoenvironmental indicators of the Quaternary.
Jobling A. 2000. Resistivity tomography survey over a topographic depression, West Yorkshire.
BSc thesis (Geophysical Sciences), School of Earth Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK.
Three resistivity profiles were completed across a topographic depression near Garforth, West Yorkshire. The depression is roughly circular, with a radius of approximately 20m. Two profiles ran through the centre of the depression, with a third profile lying outside it. Data from these three profiles were processed, and graphs and pseudosections were compiled. The data were also inverted.
The pseudosections and inversions both showed a large, negative resistivity anomaly centred approximately beneath the surface depression. This anomaly had a resistivity difference of between 600m and 700m compared to that of the surrounding rock.
The most likely reason for this anomaly is dissolution of limestone causing development of a doline or sinkhole. The chance of the depression being an old coal mine or sand mine working has been dismissed due to the location of the site and the nature of the resistivity anomaly.

Thesis Abstract: Resistivity tomography survey over a topographic depression, West Yorkshire, 2000, Jobling A.

Reliability of dipole-dipole electrical resistivity tomography for defining depth to bedrock in covered karst terranes, 2000, Zhou W. , Beck B. F. , Stephenson J. B. ,